Cohesion

Cohesion (soudržnost) is one of the manifestations of isotopic relations (vztahů na stejné úrovni) contributing in to the inner connectivity of the text and it is associated with the surface structure of the text. The meaning of the word cohesion is "to stick together" = the way grammatical features of a sentence can connect that sentence to its predecessors and successors in a text. Simply put, cohesion is a surface structure linkage between the elements of a text.

In text-production, in order to attain cohesion, we use cohesive links which are set up within a text where the interpretation of some element is dependent on that of another. Cohesive links are these:

Grammatical cohesion

      Tense - most texts have consistent temporal perspective which can be progressive or regressive (retrospective, past tense in narratives, present tense in jokes). In a reported speech we use past tense but the effect is still present (She said she was ill = she is still ill in reality.) which causes bad Czech translations (Řekla, že byla nemocná -> JE nemocná).

      Verbal voice - agents of actions have active role in active voice but if we want to suppress the agent for various reasons (to avoid mentioning or not important) we use passive voice, often to make depersonalized text.

      Definiteness - articles and demonstratives (this, that) contribute to the cohesion of the text and are very important in interpretation of the text.

      Recurrence with a shift in parts of speech - helps to avoid repetition of lexical items. (adjective separate can be later echoed as separation, to separate)

      Multiple recurrence of a sentence patterns (This is my neighbourhood. This is my street. This is my life.)

Lexical cohesion represents 50 % of cohesive links. General category of lexical cohesion consists of:

      Repetition can be total (less frequent) of partial. It is typical in political speech in which anaphoric reference using pronouns is not appropriate. (The Prime Minister recorded her thanks to the Foreign Secretary. The Prime Minister was most eloquent.)

      Synonymy or lexical replacement (She got a lot of presents. All gifts were from her family. Napoleon entered the room. The famous general made some announcement.)

      Superordinate (A pigeon carried a message. The bird was reliable.)

Instantial category of lexical cohesion consists of:

      Equivalence (You be the patient, I'll be the doctor.)

      Naming (They named the dog Fluffy.)

      Resemblance (The deck was like a pool.)

Lexico-grammatical cohesion belong partly to grammar and partly to lexis.

      Negation - manifestation of negation finds its way of expression in various grammatical ways (not) as well as negative lexical words (refuse, hate, fail, rascal...). Repetition of the negative forms appears to have a strengthening effect. (You've never seen nothing like it.) Multiple negation is relatively rare and generally restricted to conversation.

      Modality - reflects possibility, necessity, obligation and is signalled by modal verbs.

Reference is a semantic relation and occurs whenever an item indicates that the identity of what is being talked about can be retrieved from the immediate context. We can use pronouns or demonstratives (that, this...).

      Exophoric reference = the interpretation lies on the referent outside the text, in the context of situation. (Look at that - pointing to the house - the identification of the referent is dependent on the non-verbal communication.)

      Endophoric reference = the clue to the interpretation lies within the text.

o   Anaphora = in identifying the referent, we look backwards in the text (Respect people and they will respect you.)

o   Cataphora = in identifying the referent we have to look forward in the text (When I met him, Thomas looked like a knight to me.). Cataphora is very often used to cause communicative tension.

Junction (spojování) is an important cohesive link to signal semantic relations between connected elements. They are conjunctions (coordinating, subordinating), connectivities (nevertheless, but yet, however, indeed) and enumerative conjuncts (secondly, far more importantly, first and foremost).

      Additive (and, or, furthermore, similarly, in addition)

      Adversative (but, however, on the other hand)

      Causal (so, for this reason, because)

      Temporal (then, after that, finally, at last)

      Correlative (either...or, neither...nor, both...and)

      Conditional (if, provided, in case)

      Concessive (though, although)

      Reason (hence, therefore, thus, so)

Substitution means replacing one word by another.

      Nominal - replacing a noun phrase (I’ve lost my dictionary. Get a new one.)

      Verbal - replacing a verb phrase (Some people like books. Peter does for example.)

      Clausal - replacing a clause (He is very clever. I don’t think so.)

Ellipsis means to leave out a word or phrase of a sentence for reasons of language economy. Te omitted parts can only be recovered by the reader from the previous discourse.

      Nominal  (I bought a book, I bought one xXx too.)

      Verbal (Were you typing? No, I wasn’t xXx.)

      Clausal (We can live without friends, but not (=we cannot live) without neighbours.)