Phraseology

Phraseology (frazeologie) = an independent sub-branch of lexicology, dealing with phraseological units (idioms in a broader sense. Phraseological unit/phraseme (frazeologická jednotka, frazém) is a name for the basic unit of phraseology, however, the term almost unknown in the English-speaking countries.

COLLOCATION (ustálené slovní spojení) = the way in which some words regularly collocate with other with a frequency greater than chance. A habitual combination of words which sounds natural. Collocations can be restricted (bound, strong) or non-restricted (loose).

Strong tea, heavy smoker, heavy traffic, light drinker, concrete example, doctoral thesis, graduation ceremony, a lump of sugar, a flock of sheep, interested in, graduate from, take an exam, make tea, commit suicide, declare war, blond hair (not beige), stray dog (not street dog), petite woman (not petite man), ulterior motives, country bumpkin (vesnický buran), wishful thinking (zbožné přání), wreck havoc (způsobit pozdvižení), break the beans (loupat fazole) but hust the corn (loupat kukuřici). DO: the housework, some gardening, your best. MAKE: arrangement, a suggestion, a decision, a cup of tea. SET: on fire, foot in. PUT: your mind in it, two and two together.

IDIOM = a group of words established by usage and having a meaning not deducible from those of individual words. Its adjective Idiomatic means having the nature of idiom or being peculiar to characteristics of a given language. Some words are obsolete nowadays but they survived in idioms (fates of mortals, špetka soli, špetka rozumu, má za lubem, pouštět si hubu na špacír) and are used only in them.

In the narrowest meaning, pure idioms include semantically opaque (non-transparent) expressions having the character of a phrase. (Kick the bucket = natáhnout bačkory. White elephant = too expensive useless gift not needed. Lock, stock and barrel = including every part of something, sakumprásk. Shoot the breeze = have a casual conversation, klábosit. Hair of the dog that bit you = an alcohol drink to cure your hangover,vyprošťovák).

In more general use, idioms proper include semantically fully and partially opaque expressions (Lead someone up the garden path = to deceive someone, zavést do propasti. Fight tooth and nail = bojovat zuby nehty. Breathe life into sth = vdechnout něčemu život. By the way - mimochodem.). In its broadest sense it includes expressions with phrasal and also sentence structure like proverbs, similes, binominals, phrasal verbs etc.

Features of an idiom are multi-word character, institutionalization, semantic opacity, relative fixedness, ready-made reproduction, semantic integrity and functional unity.

Types of multi-word expressions

Paremiological expressions in addition to their sentence structure have also socio-cultural value and are often studied within folklore studies ethnography. They are used to express general truth.

PROVERB = traditional expressions expressing wisdom with explicit didactic meaning. They are usually in simple present and have two-part sentence structure.

Out of sight, out of mind = sejde z očí, sejde z mysli. All that glitters is not gold = není všechno zlato, co se třpytí. When the cat's away, the mice will play = když kocour není doma, myši mají pré. Make hay while the sun shines = kuj železo dokud je žhavé. Don't count chickens before they are hatched = nechval dne před večerem. Waters run deep - tichá voda břehy mele. Pride before fall = pýcha předchází pád. Opportunity makes the thief - příležitost dělá zloděje. Birds of a feather flock together = vrána k vráně sedá, rovný rovného si hledá. A burnt child dreads the fire = chybami se člověk učí. A stitch in time saves nine = udělej to, dokud je čas. Blood is thicker than water = rodinné vazby jsou silné. Hunger is the best sauce = hlad je nejlepší kuchyř. If you don't like the heat get out of kitchen = jestli se ti to nelíbí, tak do nedělej. A penny saved is a penny earned = kdo šetří má za tři.

SAYING = restricted to expressions without didactic aim and wisdom.

The coast is clear = vzduch je čistý. The boot is on the other foot = karta se obrátila. Somebody's days are numberes = něčí dny jsou sečteny. Put that in pipe and smoke it = zapiš si to za uši. What's your poison? = co budeš pít? It goes without saying = to je samozřejmé, bez debat. So it goes = tak to chodí. It can't be helped = nejde jinak. What's your game? = co vyvádíš? How goes enemy? = kolik jehodin? Take it easy = buď v klidu, žádné nervy. Tell that to the marines = řečičky, to vykládej své babičce. Somebody's number is up = má to spočítané, za pár.

Minor types of saying: Adage = saying that sets forth a general truth and that has gained credit through long use. Saw = familiar saying, especially one that has become trite through repetition. Maxim = a brief expression of a general truth, principle, or rule of conduct. Sentence truism =  a self-evident truth, cliché. Platitude = a statement that is true but not new, interesting, clever or inspiring. Aphorism = A brief statement of a principle.

Non-paremiological expressions are phrasal verbs, similes, binominals and social formulae.

PHRASE = a syntactic unit that contains words and HEAD (noun phrase, verb phrase, prepositional phrase) but is not a clause. (the government in Moscow –  government is head. In Moscow – a phrase headed by in.)

PHRASAL VERB = a combination of two or more words that is treated as equivalent of a single verb. They are formed from a verb and adverb particle and can be transitive, taking an object and often separable (give away, take up your offer, turn on) or intransitive. They are often verb-nominal, consisting of a verb and a noun but they should still have an equivalent to a single verb. (Take a picture of = to photograph. Give a ring to = to phone. Have a chat = talk. Make up your maid = decide.) Phrasal can also consist of a verb + adverb particle + preposition (get away with).

Give in, break down, bring about = způsobit, make out, knock off, hang on, cut out = vystřihnout, fall back, take off, give up, fall behind, pass out, let down, look down on, do away with, walk out on = opustit, look forward to, put up with, shut up. The most frequent adverbial particles in phrasal verbs are up, out, on, in, off, down.

PREPOSITIONAL VERB = a unit which is formed with a verb and a preposition or two which directly follow the verb. They form a lexical unit so they are not separable. (I did not care for the soup. I put up with it for too long.) We can separate particles in phrasal verbs but not in prepositional verbs!

Look at, look for, go for, wait for, deal with, talk to, talk about, speak to, ask for, be known as, be regarded as, lead to, result in, look like, depend on, belong to, consist of.

SIMILE = a comparative idiom, expressions describing one thing by comparing it to another using AS and LIKE while characteristics of animals and things are applied to people, often to make description more vivid.

As right as rain = zdravý jako rybička. As red as a turkey-cock = červený jako krocan. As white as a sheet = bílý jako stěna. As free as the wind = volný jako vítr/pták. Like a bull in a China shop = jako slon v porcelánu. Sleep like a log = spát jako dřevo. Eat like a bird = jíst jako vracet. As light as a feather = lehký jako pírko. As fresh as a daisy = čiperný jako rybička. As sharp as a needle = ostrý jako břitva. As obstinate as a mule = tvrdohlavý jako mezer. As straight as an arrow = čestný. As easy as falling off the log = snadné jako facka, brnkačka. As cross as two sticks = mrzutý jako jezevec, bad-tempered. As cheap as dirt = za babku. As hard as nails = studený jako psí čumák, cold-hearted. As thin as a rake = hubený jako tyčka. As blind as a bat = slepý jako patrona. As sure as eggs is eggs = absolutely certain, tak jako se...jmenuju. As bold as brass = very confident, drzý jako opice. Hungry as a hunter = hladový jak vlk. Like nobody's business = jako nikdo jiný, very well. Like a bear with a sore head = mrzutý jako jezevec. Like anything = do something a lot jako blázen. Like greased lightning = jako namydlený blesk. Spread like wildfire = šířit se rychlostí blesku. Fit like a glove = padne jako ulítá. As cool as a cucumber = dělat jakoby nic, být klidný. Like a fish out of water = cítit se nesvůj jako ryba na suchu. As easy as a pie = very easy. Poor as a church mouse = very poor. As drunk as a lord = very drunk.

METAPHOR = a comparison between two different things by identifying a person or object as the thing to which it is being compared (Tossed on the sea of life, silken hair, I wondered lonely as a cloud.)

BINOMIALS = expressions consisting of two related, similar or antonymous words usually joined by a junction or a comma. They enhance alliteration or rhyme, are usually irreversible and mostly belong to the same word class.

Bib and tucker = best clothes. Cut and dried = predetermined, decided. High and mighty = very proud, arogantní. Now and again/then = občas. On and off = nepravidelně. On and on = pořád dokola. Pick and choose = vybírat s rozvahou. Give or take = přibližně. Rain or shine = ať se děje co se děje. Hear, hear - tak tak výborně, agreement. By and large = celkově, obecně. Up and coming = slibný. Sink or swim = buď anebo, to succeed or fail. Part and parcel = nedílná součást, an essential part. Out and about = znovu ve formě. Alive and kicking = živý a zdravý. Hue and cry = veřejný protest, povyk. Spick and span = jako ze škatulky. Kith and kin = přátelé a příbuzní. Burn bridges = pálit mosty. Bread and butter = živobytí, livelihood. Sooner or later. Black and white.

Trinominals are less frequent. Hook, line and sinker = věřil každému slovu/deailu. Left, right and centre = na všechny strany. Here, there and everywhere = všude možně. Morning, noon and night = od rána do večera. Beg, borrow or steal = do anything ať to stojí co to stojí. Cool, calm and collected = v klidu a bez zábran. This, that and the other = všelicos. The world, the flesh and the devil = temptation that makes on to sin, pokušení. Tom, Dick and Harry = all ordinary people, leckdo.

SOCIAL FORMULAE = social phrases, pragmatic idioms of routine, expressions used in everyday communication. (How do you do? Long time no see. How goes it? You are welcome. I beg your pardon.)

CLICHÉ = an idea or phrase used so much that it is not effective/meaningful anymore but they are rather considered a question of usage and style. Unlike phrases it need some message included and you almost every time need a verb. (You can't escape your fate. Time will tell. Time is money. Unlucky in cards, lucky in love. Curiosity killed the cat. Time flies = time passes more quickly than one realizes.)

RHYMING SLANG = replacing a common word with a rhyming phrase. (Helter-skelter = horempádem. Henky-penky = techle mechle. Super duper = amazing. Honky tonky = putyční, low class dance pub. Higgledy piggledy = total disorder.)

Origin of idioms

Language is constantly changing in a process that has been going on for centuries. New idioms and words are coming into existence all the time and there are several ways of their formation.

Idiomatization is a process of institutionalization of free combinations of words into idioms, mainly inspired by people, animals and nature.

Mother's boy = maminčin mazánek. Bit the hand that feeds you = zle se odvčetit. Play the game = hrát fér. Be on the same boat. Move at snail's pace. Fight like cats and dogs. As old as the hills = starý jako Metuzalém. Hold the purse-string = držet rodinnou kasu. As fit as a fiddle = zdravý jako rybička. Climb up the ladder = šplhat nahoru po společenském žebříčku.

Game: Foul play = špinavá hra. Two can play at that time = an intention to harm someone in the same way they have harmed you, když ty tak já taky. Play a losing game = bojovat předem prohranou hru, bojovat s větrnými mlýny. The game is over. Hit below the belt = podpásovka. Have the ball in one's court = další krok je na tobě. Keep the ball rolling - pokračovat. Move the goal post = zvednout laťku, below par = pod psa, chabá úroveň. Off one's own bat = sám od sebe. Hit somebody for six = dělat problémy.

Activities at sea: Miss the boat = nechat si ujet vlak, propásnout šanci. Rock the boat = dělat problémy. Keep one's head above water = držet se nad vodou. Be on the rocks = být na odpis, jít do kytek. Know the ropes = vyznat se. Touch bottom = být na dně. High and dry = napospas bez pomoci. Plain sailing = jít bez komplikací jako po másle. Be at the helm = být u kormidla nějaké společnosti. Be on one's beam ends = být v neznázích, take the wind out of somebody's sail =  vzít někomu vítr z plachet. Three sheets in the wind = namol.

Idiomatization of citations from well-known people or books. They may become proverbs, saying or clichés.

Bible: Cast pearls before swine, an eye for an eye, a wolf in sheep's clothing, wash one's hand = zbavit se zodpověednosti, alpha and omega = the essential. Shakespeare: Cakes and ales = slasti a radovánky. Without rhyme and reason = without reason, bezdůvodně. To one's heart content = jak je libo, co sytosti. Gild the lily = přeplácat. Somebody's salad days = nezkušené mládí. As good as one's word = dostát slibu. Jonathan Swift: Rain cats and dogs = rains heavily. George Orwell: cold war, the iron curtain. Caesar: The dies is cast = kostky jsou vrženy, to cross the Rubicon. Aristotle: Swallow doesn't make a summer = jedna vlaštovka jaro nedělá. Alexander Pope: To err is human = mýlit se je lidské. Harry Truman: The buck stops here = zodpovědnost zůstává na mě.

Idiomatic derivation is a process of forming new idioms from the existing ones by shortening, extension, conversion or analogous formation.

Shortening = reduction of components.

It is the last straw that breaks the camel's neck -> the last straw = poslední kapka v poháru. New broom sweeps clean -> new broom = nové koště dobře mete, nový zaměstnanec se zprvu snaží zapůsobit. Forbidden fruit is sweet -> forbidden fruit. Don't count your chicken before they are hatched -> count one's chicken = nechval dne před večerem. Make hay while the sun shines -> make hay. Speak of the devil and he will soon appear -> speak of the devil = my o vlku.... Birds of a feather flock together -> birds of a feather. Give somebody a rope and he will hang himself -> give somebody a rope = kdo chce kam, pomozme mu tam.

Extension = new words are added to existing idioms.

Bad blood -> make bad blood. The green light -> give somebody the green light = dát zelenou, povolit. High and dry -> leave somebody high and dry. Face value -> take something at face value = podle vzhledu. Blank cheque -> give somebody a blank cheque =  dát svolení, ať si dělá, co chce.

Conversion = a process of conversion to different part of speech.

A stab in the back -> to stab in the back = vrazit nůž do zad, zdrada. A kick in the teeth ->to kick in the teeth = házet klacky pod nohy. To grin like a Cheshire cat -> a grin like a Cheshire cat = smát se od ucha k uchu. To pat on the back -> a pat on the back = poplácat po ramenou, pochválit. To change one's tune -> a change of tune = změnit názor, otočit. Pull someone's leg -> leg-pulling. Split hair -> hair splitting = být puntičkár. Beat one's breast -> breast-beating = rvát si vlasy. As clear as crystal -> crystal-clear. As dry as a bone -> bone-dry = suchý jako troud. Catch somebody's eye -> eye-catcher =  upoutat pozornost. To break down -> a break-down =  selhání, závada. Blue blood -> blue-blooded.

Analogous formation = creation of new idioms by analogy to the existing ones.

Be in the red -> be in the black. White/blue-collar worker -> pink-collar worker = ženská práce. The iron curtain -> the bamboo curtain = a political barrier between the West and the Communist countries of Asia.

Borrowing is a process of taking over or translating idioms from foreign language.

Borrowing of the original phrases without translation.

Latin: Alma mater = škola, kterou jsme navštěvovali. Persona non grata = nežádoucí osoba. Viva voce = ústní zkouška. French: Enfant terrible = nezbeda. The creme de la creme = smetánka, šlechtici. Tour de force = husarský kousek. Faux pas = trapas. Italian: In flagrante = nachytat při činu. Linguafranca = společný dorozumívací jazyk mezi různými mluvčími. Prima donna =  somebody who demands to be treated in a special way and is difficult to please.

Loan translation is a literal translation of foreign expressions.

Spanish: Sangre azul = blue blood. Quinta columna = the fifth column, kolaboranti. French: Build castles in Spain = to daydream, stavět vzdušné zámky. Nuti blanche = white night, bezesná nos. Latin: Cum grano solis = with a grain of salt, brát s rezervou. Greek: kikneia asma = swan song, poslední životní představení umělce. Chinese: Tiu lien = to lose face, ztratit respekt.

Form of idioms

Phrasal idioms have a structure of a phrase. Syntagmatic idioms have a structure of a syntagma (forming a part of larger grammatical unit) and can be verbal with a verb (smell a rat, promise the moon, ring a bell, play to the gallery, come clean) or non-verbal (Big wheel = důležitý člověk, velké zvíře. Out of the blue sky = blesk z čistého nebe, zničehonic. Once in a blue moon = jednou za uherský rok, rarely). Non-syntagmatic idioms are minimal idioms, containing one lexical word and one or more functional words (Of course. By the way. On the quiet = potají. Beat it = vypadni. Like hell = no to určitě, nevěřím tomu. In a wood =  zkrátka a dobře, to give the shortest answer. To boot = k dobru, ještě navíc. At hand = nablízku, po ruce).

Sentence idioms are idioms with a complex sentence structure. (Let sleeping dogs lie = nehas, co tě nepálí. Don't look a gift horse in the mouth. Spare the rod and spoilt the child = škoda každé rány, která padne vedle. What's cooking? = co je v plánu, co se chystá.)

Idioms can be characterized by different degrees of fixedness. Small number of idioms are completely fixed (By the way. At the eleventh hour = za pět minut dvanáct, na poslední chvíli. Out of sight, out of mind. Let bygones be bygones = co bylo, bylo.) but most expressions undergo certain grammatical changes (make up one's mind -> he/she made up his/her mind, only have eyes for/have eyes only for, play into somebody cards hands/play into the hands of somebody).

Lexical changes with possible variants of the same meaning for an idiom are called allophrasemes. (A horse of another/different colour =  to je něco jiného, to měni situaci. Lay/put one's cards on the table. The last/final straw. Bend/lean over backwards =  udělat maximum. Walk/float on air = vznášet se blahem. Beaten path/track = vyšlapaná cestička. Black as night/midnight =  tma jako v pytli, černý jako uhel. Clutch/grasp at straws =  chytat se stébka. A fifth/third wheel =  páté kolo u vozu, ten kdo je navíc. Fit/fill the bill =  ten pravý, vyhovovat.)

There are also orthographic variants (A nosy parker/a nos parker/a nosy Parker, pay lip service/pay lipservice = express loyalty. Stick in the mud/stick-in-the-mud = lacking imagination) and quantitative variants (A hard nut/a hard nut to crack =  tvrdý oříšek. As like as two peas/as like as two peas in a pod =  podobat se jako vejce vejci. Now and then/every not and then = občas. Hit the nail on the head/hit the right nail on the head =  uhodit hřebíček na hlavičku, prokouknout.)

Idiom chunk = a part of an idiom separated from the rest by a syntactic process. (The beans were by then pretty well spilt = tou dobou už to bylo rozkacané.)

Literal and non-literalness of meaning

Idioms vary in their level of opacity (transparency). Majority of idioms are monosemantic but some have more meanings (take care = look after, be careful, deal with, kill. On the run = busy, escaping.)

Pure opaque idioms have no direct connection between the meaning of the individual words and the sense of the whole. (Red tape = excessive bureaucracy. Spill the beans = tell somebody something that should be kept a secret). Blog the gaff = reveal a secret. Hot dog = enthusiastic approval, super. Pink elephants = hallucinations of chronic alcoholism, bílé myšky. Dark horse = someone who hides special qualities. A snake in the grass = somebody deceitful. A storm in a teacup = large fuss about something trivial. The pot calling the kettle black air = criticism from somebody guilty of the same fault).

Semi-opaque idioms have some connection between the meaning of the whole and the literal sense of individual words. (Add fuel to the flames = do/say something that make people react more fiercely, přijít olej do ohně. Throw in the towel = surrender, zabalit to. Pack one's bags = leave, sbalit kufty. Behind closed doors = hidden from the public, secret. Bring somebody to their knees = make somebody feel defeated. A childish play = an easy task, brnkačka. Make a U-turn = completely change one's policy, obrat o 180 stupňů.)

Semi-idioms or restricted/bound collocations are expressions with one word used in the idomatic meaning and the other in its literal meaning. (Blue-eyed body = a boy treated with special favour. Horse sense = common sense. Promise the moon = promise something unlikely to be fulfilled. Foot bill = pay the bill. White lie = a harmless life. Fair-weather friend = a person who stops being a friend in times of difficulty. Teething troubles = short-term troubles occurring in early stages. Dirty money = money obtained unlawfully.)

Semantic fields

Idioms may be grouped into idiomatic semantic (phraseosemantic) fields of semantically related idioms expressing the same concept.

Power: Call the tune/shots =  kdo udává tón, má vliv. Have somebody in the plan of one's hand =  mít někoho v hrsti. Throw of weight about = předvádět se, machrovat. Have the upper hand =  mít navrch. Twist somebody around one's little finger =  omotat si okolo prstu. Run the show/keep a tight rein = mít pod kontrolou. Fear: Get cold feet = dostat strach. Have one's heart in one's mouth = mít srdce v krku. Get the wind up = znejištět, zavětřit problém. Get in a sweat =  orosit se strachy. Frighten the life out of somebody =  vyděsit k smrti. Scare the pants off somebody =  vyděsit někoho. Have a yellow belly = to be cowardly. Make somebody's flesh creep/crawl = naháně hrůzu. Shake like a leaf = třást se jako osika. Shake in one's boots = klepat se strachy.

Synonymous idioms are idiomatic pairs of expressions with the same or close meaning. (In seventh heaven - be on cloud nine = very happy. Be rolling in it - have money to burn = be very rich. An eye for an eye - tit for tat = have revenge because they did it to you. Child's play - kid's stuff - a piece of cake = very easy. Be down in the mouth - be down in the dumps fellow = feel depressed. Go off at the deep end - fly off the handle - be nuts - see red - burst a blood-vessel = lose temper.)

Antonymous idioms are expressions having the opposite meaning. (Eat like a bird - eat like a horse =  žrát jako prase. Be in the red - be in the black. Small beer (maličkost) - big gun (velké zvíře). In the right - in the wrong. Lose one's head - keep one's head. Swim with the tide - swim against the tide. Go up in the world come down the world = stoupat/jít od desíti k pěti. In cold blood - in hot blood = chladnokrevně/ve vzteku. Too many cooks spoil the broth - many hands make light work. Absence makes the heart grow fonder - out of sight, out of mind =  láska hory přenáší.)

Idiomatic paronyms are idiomatic false friends because they are similar in form but different in their meaning. (Beat the bushes (try very hard to achieve something) - beat around the bush (avoid direct answer). Take a beating (be defeated, criticized) - take a lot of beating (be more enjoyable). Lose heart (become discouraged) - lose one's heart (fall in love).

Idiomatic clusters are idiomatic families containing one common lexical word.

Black: Be in the black. Be on black books = černá listina. Black Maria = policejní anton pro zatčené. Give sb a black eye – vrhnout pochybnosti na. Black sheep. In black and white = napsané černé na bílém. Look on the black side = dívat se na věc černě / opak look on the bright side. Not so black as he is painted = ne zas tak zlý, jak se říká. Black mark = černý puntík, poskvrnka. As black as night.

Hand: At first hand – z první ruky. Close at hand. From hand to hand. Have the upper hand. Go hand in hand = to happen or exist together, jít ruku v ruce. Hand over fist = snadno přijít k/o peníze. Have a hand in = mít v něčem prsty. Hold sb 's hand – držet za ruku, podporovat. Lift/raise one's hand against – vztáhnout ruku na. Lend a hand = help. Out of hand = not well controlled, beyond control – nemít pod kontrolou. Show one's hand – odhalit, ukázat karty.

Idiomatic frames are idioms with different meaning but identical structure.

V + the + N: Hit the bottle = to start drinking a lot of alcohol, nasávat. Hit the ceiling/roof = become very angry, skákat až do stropu vzteky. Hit the deck = lehnout k zemi. Hit the hay/sack = go to bed, jít na kutě. Hit the jackpot = vyhrát v loterii. Hit the spot = to be exactly what you want, to pravé ořechové. Hit the bull’s-eye – trefit se do černého. Hit the road = to leave or start a journey.

 IN + a + N: In a nutshell = v kostce, stručně řečeno. In a pinch – při nejhorším, z nouze. In a rut – ve vyjeté koleji, rutina. In a stew = v bryndě. In a way - způsobem. In a word – jedním slovem, zkrátka. In a jiffy = very soon – za okamžik, za moment. in a fog = confused. In a flash = very quickly, bleskurychle. In a lather = neklidný.