Broad modality, questions, commands and exclamations

Broad modality or intentional modality reflects the intention of the speaker to:

·         to simply convey information – declarative sentence (Mary is registered as your student.)

·         to require information – interrogative sentence (Is Mary registered as your student?)

·         to make a command – imperative sentence (Register Mary as your student!)

·         to wish something – desiderative sentence (If only Mary were  registered as your student.)

formal approach	functional approach
↓	↓
declarative	statement
interrogative	question
imperative	command

Narrow modality reflects the speaker's attitude to conveyed information as to probability, ability, volition, permission and obligation, often expressed by modal verbs.

Questions

Questions are broadly defined as utterances which require a verbal response from the addressee,  associated with interrogative clauses.

Yes-No Questions expect affirmation or negation. The operator verb is before the subject and they have rising intonation. (Is he at home? Have you finished the book?)

Especially in informal spoken contexts if references is obvious to the speaker and listener, there is an ellipsis and auxiliaries can be omitted (You want some more bread, Nick? = without auxiliary do. Finished? = without auxiliary have or subject you)

The modals of permission (may and can) generally involve the speaker's authority. The past forms might (permission), would/could (volition) are regularly used for politeness in place of the present forms. (Might I call you by your first name?, Could I see you for a moment?)

 Negative questions implicate that the speaker had originally hoped for a positive response but new evidence now suggests that the response will be negative which results in surprise or disbelief.

Hasn't he told you what to do? means 'Surely he has told you what to do, hasn't he? I would have thought that he had told you. Aren't you ashamed of yourself? = You ought to be, but it appears you're not.

Tag questions have negative question tags if the statement is positive and vice versa. The tag question has the form of a yes-no question. The tag with a rising tone invites verification, expecting the hearer to decide the truth of the proposition in the statement. The tag with the falling tone, on the other hand, has the force of an exclamation rather than a genuine question.

He’s at home, isn’t he? – rising tone = real question

He’s at home, isn’t he? – falling tone = reassurement

Tag questions can also be imperatives (Will you?, won’t you? can you? can’t you? could you?) and can often be used after an imperative to change the command into a polite request (Come in, will you/won’t you? Let's not discuss it now, shall we?)

Wh-questions typically expect an open reply. They request specific information about something, the circumstances surrounding actions and events (time, manner, place). The anticipated response to such questions is not yes or no, but information which provides the missing content of the wh-word.  Unlike yes-no questions, wh-questions generally have falling intonation.

who/whom/whose, what, which, when, where, how, why

Why are you waiting here? When did he come? Who are you waiting for? Indirect questions: Tell me who you are waiting for.

In informal speech, occasionally, auxiliary verbs may not need to be present where the meaning is obvious. (What you talking about? Where you going tonight?)

Minor types of questions

Alternative questions give the answerer a choice between two or more items contained in the question. (Have you seen him or her? Who have you seen, him or her? Would you like a chocolate, vanilla or strawberry ice-cream? Are you ready or not?)

Nonfinite questions (To be or not to be?  Why study?)

Verbless questions (What about your trip?)

Elided questions with ellipsis (Some more wine?

Declarative questions have the form of a declarative, except for the final rising intonation. (You will be there? You’ve got the tickets?) They resemble tag questions with a rising tone in that they invite the hearer's verification.

Exclamatory questions are interrogative in structure but they have the force of an exclamatory assertion. Typically it is a negative yes-no question with a final falling instead of rising tone. (Wasn't it a marvellous concert!  Isn’t it a nice house?!)

Rhetorical questions are interrogative in structure but they have the force of a strong assertion. The speaker does not expect an answer. (Do you think I am going to repeat it hundred times? Who cares?

Commands

Commands (directives) typically take the form of an imperative sentence so it does not have a subject and the verb is in the base form. Otherwise, the clause patterns of imperative sentences show the same ordering of elements as declaratives (VOC: Consider yourself lucky.) The imperative verb lacks tense distinction and normally does not allow modal auxiliaries.

Commands without a subject are the most common (Come here!  Don’t go there!) DO is used when we wish to emphasize or wish to be polite (Do come here!)

Commands with a subject of the second person pronoun or with indefinite pronouns stresses the addressee and makes the imperative clause more emotional (You wait here for a moment! You mind your own business! Everyone keep quiet!) It frequently expresses strong irritation or merely insistence. Third person subjects are also possible (Parents with children go to the front.)

Commands with LET (Let’s go! Let me go. Let him go.) The non-contracted form let us usually means allow us (Let us go. = allow us to go, nechte nás jít. But: Let’s go. = Pojďme.)

Commands with modal verbs are very strong (All passengers must present valid photo identification at check-in. You must study harder! You may not smoke here.) and usually shows annoyance. (Will you shut up? Will you sit down and just be quiet!).

Verbless commands (This way! Not that way! Away with him! No smoking! No dogs!)

Negative commands negate (Open the door. → Don't open the door.)

Exclamations

Exclamations (exclamatives) are short utterances that one says suddenly and loudly because you are surprised, angry or excited.

(What a miracle! Great!  How on earth! What a nice picture (it is)!  How nice (your garden is)!

Echo exclamations repeats part or all of a preceding utterance (I'm going to London for a holiday. To London!)

Exclamatory words: Wow! Awesome! Amazing! Bravo! Gosh!