American revolution and government

The way to American Independence

When searching for the initial cause we have to go back to the French and Indian War (in Europe Seven Years´ War) that occurred from 1754 to 1763 between Great Britain and France. The name refers to the two main enemies of the British colonists - French and Natives, although Great Britain also had Native allies. Great Britain was victorious so English-speaking settlers could stop worrying about being taken over by France. However, every war is expensive and to pay for that war the British government made the British colonists pay more taxes which naturally made the settlers angry. Especially, because they could not speak for themselves in England – it was taxation without representation.

In addition, many British acts made life of colonists harder. The Stamp Act required that many printed materials like legal document and newspapers in the colonies had to be created on stamped paper produced in London. Quartering Act stated that colonists had to provide housing and other provisions for soldiers. Because of the Sugar Act colonists had to buy sugar only from certain monopolist merchants. In Declaratory Act British government passed laws for colonies and the Currency Act stated that goods must be pain in the British currency, not the colonial one.

British supremacy soon became unbearable. As a protest, the settlers decided to boycott everything they had been buying from British traders. To show their resolution, in 1773 the colonists (about fifty members of the Sons of Liberty) threw Darjeeling tea from three English ships overboard into the ocean in the Boston Harbour, Massachusetts. Some of the rebels, not very convincingly, were dressed as Indians = Boston Tea Party. It should be mentioned that is was the East India Company which owned the tea. This company monopolized trade in Asia, as well as the tea. After the Boston incident, consumption of the tea in the colonies vastly decreased.

At first, colonists were trying to find some compromise but the Great Britain did not listen to their arguments so colonies decided to declare independence and formed their own new nation. Inevitably, Continental Congress announced that they regarded themselves independent states and are no longer a part of the British Empire. A committee was assembled to draft the formal document of declaration and it was John Adams (the second president) who persuaded them to select Thomas Jefferson (the third president) to compose it. The Continental Congress consisted of the thirteen former British colonies: Delaware, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Massachusetts Bay, Maryland, South Carolina, New Hampshire, Virginia, New York, North Carolina and Rhode Island and Providence Plantations.

The desire for independence had not been amongst the causes of the war, however, when Thomas Paine published his famous pamphlet Common Sense, he strongly promoted the idea of independence. Pamphlet sold over 100 000 copies and made a public debate that had been happening only in private. Eventually, the mood shifted towards independence, with several states making it clear that they would support the idea. Actually, there were two congresses. First Continental Congress was protest against taxes and it produced militia called “minute-man” because they could be ready in the minute. Second Congress was more radical and appointed George Washington as a commander-in-chief.  

And finally, on July 4^th 1776 in Philadelphia, the official document called the Declaration of Independence was accepted with 56 signatures of delegates affixed. It gave clarity to the American argument they previously lacked and played a part in convincing foreign powers to help them.

The most significant part is concededly the quotation: "We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happiness." As this statement seem to be noble and was revolutionary in its period, nowadays we can see holes in this concept of equality. First of all, signers of declaration were only men, therefore it can be argued, if the "men" were supposed to be people in general or only males. In addition, signers were only white, Christian and wealthy men.

Suddenly, the whole idea of declaration´s equality is very limited. The document is pretty vague about whether the same rights should apply also to the poor, women, Afro-Americans or Natives who were majority living in the colonies at that time. However, this fact does not decrease the importance of declaration – it simply corresponds the time period in which it was written. The preamble speaks about the right for such revolution. Nevertheless, the careful tone cannot be denied. Only if "government becomes destructive, it is the Right of the people to alter or to abolish it and to institute new government." Also: "governments long established should not be changed for light causes". It is as if the signers and the author of declaration were afraid of another uprising that could come after the Revolutionary War, therefore wanted to secure their government and positions.

Next part is the list of accusations against the British King George III, presented with the sentence: "To prove this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world." It aimed to demonstrate that Great Britain violated colonists´ rights, making their revolution rightful. Candid world meant mainly France. Being short, their charges were these: Colonists were forbidden to pass their own laws of pressing importance; legislative bodies were called at unusual and distant places so they could not attend, dissolving Representative Houses repeatedly, refusing elections, not letting new settlers come to America, keeping British soldiers in colonies in the time of peace, pretended legislation and jurisdiction, mock trials, cutting off American trade with the world, imposing taxes without consent and other accusations. The hostility against Native Americans in the declaration is obvious. The text is calling them "merciless Indian Savages" that were excited by the British to harass colonists.

The final part is the actual declaration of independence. It stated that "repeated Petitions have been answered only by repeated injury" and "a Tyrant is unfit to be the ruler of free people." The British "brethren" (as the document calls them) "have been deaf to the voice of justice…we must, therefore, hold them as the rest of mankind, Enemies in War, in Peace Friends." This statement meant not only governmental separation, but also cultural.

At first, France, Spain and the Dutch Republic supported American revolutionaries only secretly. However, American success persuaded them to step into war openly. The most famous French general who helped the United States and server under George Washington was Lafayette who also took part in Great French Revolution. In this war, spies took their part. The first spy was Nathan Hale but just for one day since the British found him and hanged him but he is famous for his quote that he regrets he could give only one life for his country. John the Painter was also hanged, only Thomas Knowlton actually got all intelligence. John Clark was spying directly for Washington. People and places were numbered so it was hard to break this code.

The first conflict aroused during the reign of First Continental Congress in 1775 when the British army marched to Concord but minuteman removed their munitions so not many people were killed. American victory in Trenton 1776 boosted morale of revolutionaries but the real turning point was the battle of Saratoga in 1777 when the British invasion from Canada ended by capturing the British army and resulted in open support of Spain. Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union in 1777 was an agreement among the 13 founding states that established the United States of America as a confederation of sovereign states and served as its first constitution.

However, it was the battle of Yorktown in 1781 that proved to be decisive and the last major battle where the United States with the French help won. Victory forced Great Britain to finally negotiate, resulting in the Treaty of Paris in 1783 that formally ended the war. The treaty acknowledged the thirteen colonies to be free and independent on the British Crown, granting fishing rights and prisoners of war on both sides were released.

George Washington became the first president of the United States who served two terms and also made it as rule. He had a vision of a powerful nation that would be built on republican ideas using federal power. He wanted to use the national government to preserve liberty, improve infrastructure, open the western lands, promote commerce, found a permanent capital, reduce regional tensions and promote a spirit of American nationalism.

The government

United States Constitution is the central document of US government, written in 1787 in Philadelphia by the Continental Congress of the new American republic and officially adopted in 1789. It stated the 3 branches of government (executive, legislative, judiciary) for the purpose of separation of powers and said that all persons are equal before the law, as are all states and each state must be democratic and respect the law.

Legislative branch = the Congress that consists of the Senate and the House of Representatives. The Congress is the lawmaking (legislative) branch and seats in Washington D. C. There is a new Congress every two weeks. Because it is bicameral, the Legislative branch has a degree of self-checking and bills must be passed by both houses of Congress. Neither house may adjourn for more than three days without the consent of the other house. House of Representative has Impeachment Power in which an official is accused of unlawful activity and Senate carries out this power in Trial of Impeachments. In the history of USA, impeached presidents were Andrew Johnson and Bill Clinton, both acquitted.

The Senate is made up of 100 senators (2 elected from each state), serves six years terms. To be a senator, a person must be at least 30 years old, an American citizen and resident of the state that he/she is representing. Only 1/3 of senators are elected every 2 years. The president of the Senate is the vice-president of the United States.

The House of Representatives number of representatives from any state depends on the state´s population, total 435, serve 2 years term, at least 25 years old, the Speaker of the House is the leader of House.

Executive branch makes sure that laws are carried out, the President is head, at least 40 years old. President is elected every four years by the citizens of the US indirectly by a special group of people chosen by the citizens. He has the veto power, is commander in chief of the military, can call emergency session of one or both houses of Congress, may force adjournment when both houses cannot agree on adjournment. He also checks on the Judiciary with power to appoint judges and his power to pardon criminals. However, Vice President and Cabinet can vote that the President is unable to discharge his duties. He is assisted by the vice-president and his cabinet which help him carry out laws make policy in different key areas such as defence, education and commerce etc.

Government departments: of Defense (oversees the Armed Forces), of State (in charge of foreign relations), of Justice (in charge of law and order, includes the FBI), of the Treasury (oversees country's money supply, includes the IRS, the mint, the Federal Reserve Board), of Agriculture, of Commerce, of the Interior (takes care of national parks and wildlife), of Veteran Affairs (services for veterans who served country in the military), of Education, of Health and Human Services etc.

Judiciary branch interprets the laws and makes sure that they are ok with the Constitution. At the national level, the Supreme Court is the top court. It is made up of nine justices. They are chosen by the president. The Supreme Court also hears cases that deal with federal laws or matters and write opinions on these cases. There are also Court of Appeal (power to hear an appeal of a trial court) and District courts.

From a bill to a law

Bill = law proposal that has to be printed in certain form. The bill is debated in the House of Representatives and if it’s approved with majority of yeses, it’s passed to the Senate to another debate. If it’s approved, the bill is sent to White House. The President either sign bill so it becomes law or veto the bill. However, 2/3 of votes for yes from the House of Representatives and Senate can override veto and the bill becomes the law anyway.

Bill of Rights was added to the United States Constitution in 15 December 1791, it’s a collective name for originally the first ten Amendments, Amendment 1 guarantee freedom of speech, press and assembly, Amendment 2 right to bear arms. The key author was James Madison, the fourth president and also the author of the Constitution.