Adverb

Adverb is one of the four lexical word classes, very common in all registers, but less common than nouns and verbs. Its naming suggests the idea of adding to the meaning of a verb. There are two types of syntactic function that characterize adverbs:

Adverb as adverbial

An adverb may function as adverbial, a constituent distinct from subject, verb, object and complement. There are three classes of adverbials:

1. Adjuncts (circumstance adverbials) are integrated within the structure of the clause to at least some extent and express frequency, time, place or manner (They are waiting outside. I can now understand it. He spoke to me about it briefly.)

2. Disjuncts (stance adverbials) express an evaluation of what is being said. (Frankly, I am tired. Fortunately, no one complained. They are probably at home.) They are not integrated within the clause.

3. Conjuncts (linking adverbials) have a connective function as they indicate the connection between what is being said and what was said before: however, though, furthermore, then. (He seems very intelligent, though. If they open all the windows, then I’m leaving.)

Adverb as a modifier

When fully integrated into the clause, adverbs can modify an adjective or another adverb. They are often intensifiers like very, so, pretty, rather, unusually, quite, unbelievably. They can premodify adjectives (It is very hot today.) or postmodify (That's interesting enough.).

The formation of adverbs

Simple adverbs are not derived from another word (well, too, rather, quite, soon, here) but sometimes can be used as another part of speech (He is fast. He did it fast.)

Fixed phrases can be used as adverbs. They never vary in form and their component words have lost their independent meaning (of course, kind of, at last).

Adverbs derived by suffixation

      adding suffix -ly to an adjective (clear -> clearly, careful -> carefully)

      adding suffix -ly to nouns (daily, hourly, monthly, weekly)

      suffixes –wise, -style, -ways, -fashion (moneywise, American-style, sideways, Indian-fashion

      prefix a- (abroad, across, ahead, aloud, around, asleep, awake)

Spelling rules

1. A final -y changes to -i (happy – happily, gay – gaily, pretty – prettily) but! (sly – slyly, shy – shyly)

2. A final -e is retained (not dropped) before -ly (extremely, absolutely, completely). Exceptions (true – truly, whole – wholly).

3. Adjectives -le drop the -e and add -y (gentle – gently; simple – simply; terrible – terribly; humble – humbly; noble – nobly)

4. Adjectives ending in -ic take -ally (basic – basically, fantastic – fantastically, tragic – tragically) Exception: public – publicly.

Adverb and adjectives with the same form

Sometimes an adverb has the identical form as a related adjective. (fast) In conversation, adjective forms are often used as adverbs. (The big one went so slow.) From a prescriptive point of view, slow is an adjective form and its use as an adverb is classified as non-standard. However, in conversation, such uses are not unusual. Good is sometimes used as an adverb in place of the prescriptively correct adverb well. (They go good with jeans.)

airmail letter - send it airmail, best clothes - do your best, a cheap suit - buy it cheap, a loud noise, talk loud, sharp eyes - look sharp

Adverbs with two forms

Some adverbs have two forms which may have the same meaning (I bought this car cheap/cheaply.).

Or different meanings: (I work hard and play hard. I did hardly any work today. Come near. My work is nearly finished.)

Comparison of adverbs

Comparison of adverbs is similar to comparison of adjectives as only gradable adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms. (fast-faster-fastest, frequently-more frequently-most frequently). It’s not possible with adverbs which are not gradable (extremely, only, really, then, there, uniquely).

Gradable adverbs form comparatives and superlatives as follows:

	Positive	Comparative	Superlative
monosyllabic adverbs	fast	faster	fastest
two or more syllables	early easily rarely	earlier more easily more rarely	earliest most easily most rarely

Irregular comparisons of adverbs:

	Positive	Comparative	Superlative
Irregular adverbs	well badly little late much far	better worse less later more farther further	best worst least last most farthest (of distance only) furthest (used more widely)

She writes well. That was a difficult question, so we answered it last. It last rained eight months ago. = The last time it rained was ... I don't drive much these days. They admired him very much. She behaved most kindly.)

Constructions with comparisons

AS...AS indicate the same degree (Sylvia sings as sweetly as her sister.)

NOT AS...AS, NOT SO...AS indicate lower degree. (John doesn’t behave as politely as Bob.)

THAN after the comparative (The rain cleared more quickly than I expected.)

LIKE/AS comparisons (He worked as a slave. = He was a slave. He worked like a slave = he was not really a slave, he just worked that hard in inhuman conditions.)

  

Kinds of adverbs, their meaning and position

Adverbs of manner

They express information about How? an action is performed. Many of these adverbs have -ly, -fashion, -ways etc. suffixes, taking their meanings from their adjectives they are derived from.

They are positioned after the object or after the verb. (Sue watched the monkeys curiously. She danced beautifully.) The important thing is not to put the adverb between the verb and its object. (NOT He speaks well English but He speaks English well.)

With some adverbs of manner (bravely, cleverly, cruelly, foolishly, generously, kindly, secretly, simply) the position depends on emphasis. (He foolishly locked himself out. = It was foolish of him to lock himself. He behaved foolishly at the party. = in a foolish manner) In narrative writings, sentences can begin with adverbs of manner for dramatic effect. Such adverbs are followed by a comma (Quietly, he moved forwards to get a better view.)

Adverbs of place

They express position Where? (He loves it there.), direction Where to/from? (It hopped backward among its companions.) or distance How far? (Don’t worry, he can’t have gone far.).

When there is more than one kind of adverb in a sentence:

                    manner                place                      time

Barbara read quietly          in the library         all afternoon.

If there is more than one adverb of place, then smaller place’ are mentioned before bigger places in ascending order: She lives | in a small house | in a village | outside Reading | in Berkshire | England. If we wish to emphasize location, we may begin with an adverb of location (Indoors it was nice and warm. Outside it was snowing heavily.).

Adverbs of time

They express time When? (She’s not that rude now.) and duration How long? (She will remain a happy memory with us always.) Words like: after, already, before, eventually, lately, now, once, presently, recently, soon, then, today, tomorrow, yesterday, etc.

The most usual position is at the very beginning or at the very end of a sentence (This morning I had a telephone call from Mary.  We checked in at the hotel yesterday.)

STILL emphasizes continuity, mainly used in questions and affirmatives, often with progressive tenses. Still is placed after the verb be but before other verbs (Mrs Mason is still in hospital. Tom still works for the British Council.). YET generally comes at the end in questions and negatives (Have the new petrol prices come into force yet? The new petrol prices haven’t come into force yet.) JUST (I’ve just finished reading the paper.)

Adverbs of degree

They describe the extent To what degree? They can be used to emphasize that a characteristic is either greater or less than some typical level.

As amplifiers they increasing intensity (very, so, extremely - very good, so generously, extremely cautious), others indicate an endpoint on a scale (totally, absolutely, completely, quite). As diminishers they decrease the effect of the modified item (less, slightly, somewhat, rather, quite) in the sense of to some extent (slightly cold, rather boring). Most of degree adverbs go before the words they modify.

Adverbs of frequency

They express the information about How often? They are words like: always, generally, frequently, hourly, fortnightly, normally, regularly, occasionally, sometimes, usually etc. Phrases like: every day/week/month/year; every few days; on Mondays, weekdays; hardly ever, scarcely ever; from time to time; now and again etc.

The normal position of most adverbs of frequency is after an auxiliary or before a full verb. (I was never very good at maths. You can always contact me. Gerald often made unwise decisions.) They usually come before used to, have to and ought to (We never used to import so many goods.)  In questions, they come after the subject (Do you usually have cream in your coffee?). Where special emphasis is required, the sentence can begin with adverbs of frequency (Sometimes we get a lot of rain in August. Never borrow money!)

EVER meaning at any time is used in questions (Have you ever thought of applying for a job abroad?)

Ever can occur in affirmative if-sentences (If you ever need any help...) and after hardly, scarcely and barely: Hardly/scarcely ever did they manage to meet them. NEVER is used in negative sentences and frequently replaces not when we wish to strengthen a negative. (I don’t smoke - I never smoke.)