Structuralism

Structuralism derived from Formalism and flourished during 1950-1960s. Unlike Formalism that studies mainly poetry, Structuralism more tends to analyze prose as they need to trace larger structures of text. This approach tries to find the conventions of a particular literary genre or how it breaks the rules, a network of intertextual connections (allusions to other works), establish a model of a universal narrative structure and look for reoccurring patterns and motifs.

This criticism is mainly associated with the work of FERDINAND DE SAUSSURE who was a linguist that tried to study the structure of the language system. He believed that language is some kind of order; its parts are interconnected and have to follow certain rules. He came up with a theory of signs (belonging to the discipline called semiology), coining the term signifier (phonic component, how the word sounds) and signified (idea, image). Literature is a complex of signs that function in certain ways to create meaning.

CLAUDE LÉVI-STRAUSS started to apply this theory on mythology and discovered that stories of different cultures and eras share similar patterns. He argued that a “savage mind” has the same structure as a “civilized mind” and human characteristics are the same everywhere. He created the term mytheme = the smallest unit of narrative sense with the analogy to the morpheme (the smallest unit of grammatical sense).

VLADIMIR PROPP in his study Morphology of the Folktale stated the same – that despite different characters in narratives, their functions and relations remain basically the same. TZVETAN TODOROV came up with the term of missing centre = belief that each story is circling around some desire/interest which is never achieved. Like in The Beast in the Jungle, it is something that a character wants but is never explicitly present.

During 1960s, Structuralism was mainly influential in France with psychoanalyst JACQUES LACAN and literary critic JULIA KRISTEVA, rewriting the theory of Freud and analyzing the relationships between mother and father. Historian MICHEL FOUCAULT coined the term episteme = theory that in each historical era has a special view of the world and the means of interpreting history, science and religion. Episteme is basic knowledge that people had in a specific time, their assumptions and believes and Foucault tried to show that language shapes our understanding of reality.

  

Structuralist criticism on Young Goodman Brown by Nathaniel Hawthorne:

Characters: pretty flat characters but it depends on interpretation because Brown changes, although we still do not know much about him. Setting: woods around Salem, gloomy and mystical place, it seems that the sky changes according to Brown’s thoughts. Genre: a short story of failed initiation with gothic elements and symbolism.

Symbols: pink ribbons, pink is a variation of red, originally not meant to be worn by women as it represented devil or something daring that Puritans would reject. Brown does not comprehend pinkness as he should and sees Faith as a blessed angel on Earth, a fragile doll, happy naïve creature who would not understand where he is going but he believes she will safely take him to heaven. Brown knows that the place is not pleasant but he knows exactly where he is going and who he is meeting. When he meets the devil, the devil tells him “You’re late.” which means that their meeting was indeed arranged. The devil has serpent staff with him, another symbol. The devil is dressed in a similar manner and bearing a resemblance to Brown, teaching him that evil is in everybody, even Brown = he is a mirror.

Propp’s structure works perfectly with fairytales but can we apply it on Young Goodman Brown? Some elements are optional but a basic structure of going to a quest –> meeting a villain –> conflict –> returning home, is here.

1. One of the members of a family absents from home – check, Goodman Brown leaves his house. 2. An interdiction is addressed to the protagonist – check, Brown’s wife tells him not to go. 3. The interdiction is violated – check, Brown goes anyway. 4. The villain makes an attempt at reconnaissance – check, the villain is the devil and meets Brown. 5. The villain receives information about his victim – check, the devil asks Brown if his faith is strong.

6. The villain attempts to deceive his victim in order to take possession of him or his belongings – the devil assumes a disguise of a gentleman, very similar to Brown. 7. The victim unknowingly helps the villain by being deceived - Brown is influenced by the devil and curious about the rest of the community. 8. The villain harms a member of the family or a member of the family lacks or desires something – the devil does not do anything bad to Faith but she goes after her husband, afraid of her premonition dream. 9. This lack or misfortune is made known – Brown notices Faith’s pink ribbon in the forest. 10. The seeker plans action against the villain – Goodman tries to resist.

11. The hero is tested, attacked and receives some helper – half check, Brown’s faith is tested but he does not receive any helper. 15. The hero is transferred to the location of his quest – check, Brown arrives at the Black Sabbath place. 16. The hero and villain join in direct combat – not present, the battle takes place only in Brown’s mind. 18. The villain is defeated – not present. 19. The initial misfortune is set right – not present, Brown does not resist devil’s temptation, fails to accept the his negative side. 20. The hero returns home – check, he probably returns to his house. 23. The hero arrives home and is not recognised – check, Brown is never the same. 27. After difficult task, the hero is recognized – not present, Brown never overcomes his loss of faith. 31. The hero is married – not present, Brown is married from the beginning.